Illegal drug trade

International drug routes.
Panamanian motor vessel Gatun during the largest cocaine bust in United States Coast Guard history (totalling 20 tons, worth over 600 million USD), off the coast of Panama.

The illegal drug trade is a global black market, competing with legal drug trade, dedicated to cultivation, manufacture, distribution and sale of those substances which are subject to drug prohibition laws. Most jurisdictions prohibit trade, except under license, of many types of drugs by drug prohibition laws.

A UN report said the global drug trade generated an estimated US$321.6 billion in 2003.[1] With a world GDP of US$36 trillion in the same year,[2] the illegal drug trade may be estimated as slightly less than 1% of total global commerce. Consumption of illegal drugs is widespread globally.

Contents

History

The illegal drugs trade has arisen as a result of drug prohibition laws. In the First Opium War the Chinese authorities had banned opium but the United Kingdom forced the country to allow British merchants to trade in opium with the general population. Smoking opium had become common in the 1800s due to increasing importation via British merchants. Trading in opium was (as it is today in the heroin trade) extremely lucrative. As a result of this illegal trade an estimated two million Chinese people became addicted to the drug. The British Crown (via the treaties of Nanking and Tianjin) took vast sums of money from the Chinese government through this illegal trade which they referred to as "reparations".

Mafia groups limited their activities to gambling and theft until 1920, when organized bootlegging manifested in response to the effect of prohibition. An example of the spectacular rise of the mafia due to Prohibition is Al Capone's syndicate that "ruled" Chicago in the 1920s. The official rise of drug trade started in 1954. The peak of drug selling was in 1979.[3]

Legal penalties

In many countries, drug smuggling carries a severe penalty, including the death penalty (for example, China and Singapore). In 2010, two people were sentenced to death in Malaysia for trafficking 1 kilogram/2.2 pounds of cannabis into the country.[4]

Effects of illegal drug trade on societies

The countries of drug production have been seen as the worst affected by global drug trade. Drugs produce long term consequences and problems in societies, such as health problems, and socio-economic and political instability.[5]

Even so, countries receiving the illegally-imported are also affected by problems stemming from drug trade. For example, Ecuador has allegedly absorbed up to 300,000 refugees from Colombia who are running from guerrillas, paramilitaries and drug lords, says Linda Helfrich. While some applied for asylum, others are still illegal, and the drugs that pass from Colombia through Ecuador to other parts of South America create economic and social problems.[6]

Violent crime

In many countries worldwide, the illegal drug trade is thought to be directly linked to violent crimes such as murder; this is especially true in third world countries, but is also an issue for many developed countries worldwide.[7] In the late 1990s in the United States, for example, the Federal Bureau of Investigation estimated that 5% of murders were drug-related.[7] However, after a crackdown by U.S. and Mexican authorities in the 2000s (part of tightened borders security in the wake of the September 11 attacks), border violence inside Mexico surged, with the Mexican government estimating that 90% of the killings are drug-related.[8]

Minors and the illegal drug trade in the US

The U.S. government's most recent 2005 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) reported that nationwide over 800,000 adolescents ages 12–17 sold illegal drugs during the twelve months preceding the survey; such adolescents also admitted to know or be linked to other drug dealers across the nation.[9] The 2005 Youth Risk Behavior Survey by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported that nationwide 25.4% of students had been offered, sold, or given an illegal drug by someone on school property. The prevalence of having been offered, sold, or given an illegal drug on school property ranged from 15.5% to 38.7% across state CDC surveys (median: 26.1%) and from 20.3% to 40.0% across local surveys (median: 29.4%).[10]

Despite over $7 billion spent annually towards arresting[11] and prosecuting nearly 800,000 people across the country for marijuana offenses in 2005 (FBI Uniform Crime Reports), the federally-funded Monitoring the Future Survey reports about 85% of high school seniors find marijuana “easy to obtain.” That figure has remained virtually unchanged since 1975, never dropping below 82.7% in three decades of national surveys.[12]

In 2009, the Justice Department identified more than 200 U.S. cities in which Mexican drug cartels "maintain drug distribution networks or supply drugs to distributors" - up from 100 three years earlier.[13]

Trade of specific drugs

Cannabis

Four ounces of low grade cannabis

While the recreational use of (and consequently the distribution of) cannabis is illegal in most countries throughout the world, it is available by prescription in many places including some US states and in Canada.[14] Cannabis is also tolerated in some areas, most notably the Netherlands.

Alcohol

Main article: Alcoholic beverage

In some areas of the world, particularly in and around the Arabian peninsula, the trade of alcohol is prohibited by law. For example, Pakistan bans the trade because of its large Muslim population. Similarly, Saudi Arabia forbids the importation of alcohol into its kingdom. Pure alcohol or liquids with high alcohol concentration, the threshold for which varying in different jurisdictions, and usually measured as a percentage or proof value, calculated by either volume or mass, are also restricted in many additional countries.

Tobacco

Main article: Tobacco

While the purchase and use of tobacco is legal for adults in most countries throughout the world, heavy taxation in some countries such as the United Kingdom has resulted in an extensive market for its illegal trade. Tobacco products such as name-brand cigarettes may be sold as low as one third of the retail price because of the lack of taxes which would be imposed throughout the legal distribution process. It was estimated in 2004 that smuggling a single truck containing up to 48,000 cartons of cigarettes into the United States could lead to a profit of around US$2 million.[15]

The source of the illegally-traded tobacco is often the proceeds from other crimes, such as store and transportation robberies.

A notable exception to the legal status of tobacco in most countries internationally is the kingdom of Bhutan, which made the sale of tobacco illegal in December 2004,[16] and since this event, a large supply of tobacco has been made available on the black market. In 2006, tobacco and betel nut were the most commonly seized illicit drugs in Bhutan.[17]

Heroin

Main article: Heroin
A field of opium poppies in Burma.

Heroin is smuggled into the United States and Europe from areas such as the Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia); with Afghanistan currently being "the world's largest exporter of heroin".[18][19] In 2007, 93% of the opiates on the world market originated in Afghanistan.[20] This amounts to an export value of about $64 billion, with a quarter being earned by opium farmers and the rest going to district officials, insurgents, warlords and drug traffickers.[21]

According to the United States Drug Enforcement Administration, the price of heroin is typically valued 8 to 10 times that of cocaine on American streets, making it a high-profit substance for smugglers and dealers.[22] In Europe (except the transit countries Portugal and the Netherlands), for example, a purported gram of street heroin, usually consisting of 700–800 mg of a light to dark brown powder containing 5-10% heroin base, costs between 30 and 70 euros, making the effective value per gram of pure heroin between 300 and 2000 euros. Heroin is generally a preferred target for smuggling and distribution over unrefined opium due to the cost-effectiveness and increased efficacy of heroin.

Heroin is a very easily smuggled drug because a small, quarter-sized vial can contain hundreds of doses. From the 1930s to the early 1970s, the so-called French Connection supplied the majority of US demand. Allegedly, during the Vietnam war, drug lords such as Ike Atkinson used to smuggle hundreds of kilos of heroin to the U.S. in coffins of dead American soldiers (see Cadaver Connection). Since that time it has become more difficult for drugs to be imported into the United States than it had been in previous decades, but that does not stop the heroin smugglers from getting their product onto U.S. soil. Purity levels vary greatly by region with, for the most part, Northeastern cities having the most pure heroin in the United States (according to a recently released report by the DEA, Camden, New Jersey and Newark, New Jersey and Philadelphia, have the purest street grade A heroin in the country).

Penalties for smuggling heroin and/or morphine are often harsh in most countries. Some countries will readily hand down a death sentence or life in prison for the illegal smuggling of heroin or morphine, which are both, internationally, Schedule I drugs under the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.

Methamphetamine

Main article: Methamphetamine

Methamphetamine is another popular drug among distributors. The most common street names for "crystal meth", "meth", and "ice".

According to the Community Epidemiology Work Group, the numbers of clandestine methamphetamine laboratory incidents reported to the National Clandestine Laboratory Database decreased from 1999 to 2004. During this same period, methamphetamine lab incidents increased in midwestern States (Illinois, Michigan, Missouri, and Ohio), and in Pennsylvania. In 2004, more lab incidents were reported in Missouri (2,788) and Illinois (1,058) than in California (764). In 2003, methamphetamine lab incidents reached new highs in Georgia (250), Minnesota (309), and Texas (677). There were only seven methamphetamine lab incidents reported in Hawaii in 2004, though nearly 59 percent of substance abuse treatment admissions (excluding alcohol) were for primary methamphetamine abuse during the first six months of 2004. As of 2007, Missouri leads the United States in clandestine lab seizures, with 1,268 incidents reported.[23] Often canine units are used for detecting rolling meth labs which can be concealed on large vehicles, or transported on something as small as a motorcycle. These labs are more difficult to detect than stationary ones, and can be often obscured with the legal cargo on big trucks.[24]

Methamphetamine is sometimes used in an injectable form, placing users and their partners at risk for transmission of HIV and hepatitis C.[25] "Meth" can also be inhaled, most commonly vaporized on aluminum foil, or through a test tube or light bulb fashioned into a pipe. This method is reported to give "an unnatural high" and a "brief intense rush"[26].

In South Africa where methamphetamine is called "tik" or "tik-tik". Children as young as eight are abusing the substance, smoking it in crude glass vials made from light bulbs. Since methamphetamine is easy to produce, the substance is manufactured locally in staggering quantities. After the new South African government came into power, the South African Narcotics Bureau (SANAB) was disbanded, allowing dealers unprecedented freedom of operation and causing a simultaneous drop in prices and rise in availability.[27]

Temazepam

Main article: Temazepam

Temazepam, which is a strong hypnotic benzodiazepine, is being illicitly manufactured in clandestine laboratories (called jellie labs) to supply the increasingly high demand for the hypnotic drug internationally.[28] Most clandestine temazepam labs are in Eastern Europe. The way in which they manufacture the temazepam is through chemical alteration of diazepam, oxazepam or lorazepam.[29] Clandestine "jellie labs" have been identified and shutdown in Russia, Ukraine, Czech Republic, Latvia and Belarus.[30]

In the United Kingdom, temazepam is the most widely-abused legal, prescription drug. It's also the most commonly abused benzodiazepine in Finland, Ireland, the Netherlands, Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary, India, Russia, China, New Zealand, Australia and some parts of Southeast Asia. In Sweden it has been banned due to a problem with drug abuse issues and a high rate of death caused by temazepam alone relative to other drugs of its group. Surveys in many countries showed that temazepam, heroin, cocaine, MDMA, cannabis, nimetazepam, and amphetamines rank among the top drugs most frequently abused.[31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41]

U.S. Government involvement

The U.S. Federal Government is a vocal opponent of the illegal drug trade; however, state laws vary greatly and in some cases defy federal laws. Despite the US government's official position against the drug trade, US government agents and assets have been implicated in the drug trade and were caught and investigated during the Iran-Contra scandal, implicated in the use of the drug trade as a secret source of funding for the USA's support of the Contras. Page 41 of the December 1988 Kerry report to the US Senate[42] states that "indeed senior US policy makers were not immune to the idea that drug money was a perfect solution to the Contra's funding problem.

Highly decorated US military Special Forces veteran Colonel Bo Gritz (retired) has accused the USA of collaborating with and supporting Manuel Noriega in his drug trafficking operations. In his book Called To Serve, Gritz details his role as a key US Government employee tasked with protecting the USA's relationship with Noriega.

Contrary to its official goals, the US has suppressed research on drug usage. For example, in 1995 the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute (UNICRI) announced in a press release the publication of the results of the largest global study on cocaine use ever undertaken. However, a decision in the World Health Assembly banned the publication of the study. In the sixth meeting of the B committee the US representative threatened that "If WHO activities relating to drugs failed to reinforce proven drug control approaches, funds for the relevant programmes should be curtailed". This led to the decision to discontinue publication. A part of the study has been released.[43]

See also

International coordination:

Case studies:

US specific:

References

  1. ↑ "UN report puts world's illicit drug trade at estimated $321b". Boston.com. June 30, 2005.
  2. ↑ "List of countries by past GDP (nominal)". Wikipedia.com.
  3. ↑ "Organized Crime - American Mafia", Law Library - American Law and Legal Information
  4. ↑ Two Friends Sent To The Gallows For Drug Trafficking
  5. ↑ Singer, M. 2008. Drugs and development: The global impact of drug use and trafficking on social and economic development. International Journal of Drug Policy 19 (6):467-478.
  6. ↑ Linda Helfrich. "Refugees in Ecuador". http://www.inwent.org/ez/articles/168962/index.en.shtml. Retrieved 2010-05-31. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 "Drug-Related Crime - Factsheet - Drug Facts". Whitehousedrugpolicy.gov. http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/factsht/crime/index.html. Retrieved 2008-10-19. 
  8. ↑ Traci Carl (November 3, 2009). "Progess in Mexico drug war is drenched in blood". Associated Press. http://www.newssafety.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=12194:progress-in-mexico-drug-war-is-drenched-in-blood&catid=345:mexico-security&Itemid=100298. Retrieved May 4, 2010. 
  9. ↑ http://oas.samhsa.gov/nsduh/2k5nsduh/2k5Results.htm
  10. ↑ "Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance - United States, 2005". Cdc.gov. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss5505a1.htm. Retrieved 2008-10-17. 
  11. ↑ "Costs of Marijuana Prohibition: Economic Analysis". Prohibitioncosts.org. http://www.prohibitioncosts.org/. Retrieved 2008-10-17. 
  12. ↑ http://www.monitoringthefuture.org/data/05data/pr05t13.pdf
  13. ↑ "Border violence threatens Americans". The Washington Times. April 1, 2010.
  14. ↑ http://norml.org/index.cfm?Group_ID=3391
  15. ↑ "Cigarette Smuggling Linked to Terrorism". Washington Post. 2004-06-08. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A23384-2004Jun7.html. Retrieved 2008-10-17. 
  16. ↑ "Bhutan forbids all tobacco sales". BBC News. 2004-12-17. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4012639.stm. Retrieved 2008-10-17. 
  17. ↑ "Articles:Listing Bhutan". Tobacco.org. http://www.tobacco.org/articles/country/bhutan/. Retrieved 2008-10-17. 
  18. ↑ "AFGHANISTAN CLAIMS TITLE OF WORLD'S LARGEST HEROIN PRODUCER". 24-7 Press Release. 2008-04-06. http://www.24-7pressrelease.com/press-release/afghanistan-claims-title-of-worlds-largest-heroin-producer-45907.php. Retrieved 2008-06-29. 
  19. ↑ "World failing to dent heroin trade, U.N. warns". CNN.com. October 21, 2009.
  20. ↑ UNITED NATIONS Office on Drugs and Crime (PDF). Afghanistan Opium Survey 2007. http://www.unodc.org/pdf/research/AFG07_ExSum_web.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-27. 
  21. ↑ UNODC (2008-11-16). "Opium Amounts to Half of Afghanistan's GDP in 2007, Reports UNODC". Press release. http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/press/releases/opium-amounts-to-half-of-afghanistans-gdp-in-2007,-reports-unodc.html. Retrieved 2007-01-27. 
  22. ↑ "News from DEA, Congressional Testimony, 11/09/05". Dea.gov. http://www.dea.gov/pubs/cngrtest/ct110905.html. Retrieved 2008-10-17. 
  23. ↑ DEA (2008). "Maps of Methamphetamine Lab Incidents". http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/concern/map_lab_seizures.html. 
  24. ↑ Bootie Cosgrove-Mather."Rolling Meth Labs In Vogue – Methamphetamine Makers Turn Vehicles Into Rolling Drug Labs." CBS News. Published July 17, 2002. Retrieved on 2009-02-14.
  25. ↑ NIDA (2008). "NIDA InfoFacts: Methamphetamine". http://www.nida.nih.gov/infofacts/methamphetamine.html. 
  26. ↑ Sommerfeld, Julia (February 2001). "Beating an addiction to meth". Meth's Deadly Buzz (MSNBC). http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/3076519/. Retrieved 2008-06-29. 
  27. ↑ "Tik, memory loss and stroke". Scienceinafrica.co.za. http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2005/june/tik.htm. Retrieved 2008-10-19. 
  28. ↑ Alex Robertson (2003/10/10). "Deadly 'jellies' flood city from Eastern Europe; Police chiefs fear drug-fueled crime surge as home-made tablets hit streets again". Evening Times. http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1P2-14277770.html. 
  29. ↑ European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), 2006. Annual Report 2006: The State of the Drugs Problem in Europe, EMCDDA, Luxembourg.
  30. ↑ UNODC Regional Office for Russia and Belarus, Illicit drug trends in the Russian Federation 2005. Moscow: UNODC, 2006
  31. ↑ Niaz, K (1998). Drug Abuse Monitoring System in Rawalpindiislamabad. Report of the Asian Multicity Epidemiology Workgroup. Eds. Navaratnam V and Bakar A.A., 151-l 60.
  32. ↑ Morrison V (April 1989). "Psychoactive substance use and related behaviours of 135 regular illicit drug users in Scotland". Drug Alcohol Depend 23 (2): 95–101. doi:10.1016/0376-8716(89)90013-6. PMID 2702930. 
  33. ↑ Sakol MS, Stark C, Sykes R (April 1989). "Buprenorphine and temazepam abuse by drug takers in Glasgow--an increase". Br J Addict 84 (4): 439–41. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1989.tb00589.x. PMID 2566343. 
  34. ↑ Lavelle TL, Hammersley R, Forsyth A (1991). "The use of buprenorphine and temazepam by drug injectors". J Addict Dis 10 (3): 5–14. doi:10.1300/J069v10n03_02. PMID 1932153. 
  35. ↑ Hammersley R, Lavelle T, Forsyth A (February 1990). "Buprenorphine and temazepam--abuse". Br J Addict 85 (2): 301–3. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1990.tb03088.x. PMID 1969295. 
  36. ↑ Hammersley R, Cassidy MT, Oliver J (July 1995). "Drugs associated with drug-related deaths in Edinburgh and Glasgow, November 1990 to October 1992". Addiction 90 (7): 959–65. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1995.tb03504.x. PMID 7663317. 
  37. ↑ Forsyth AJ, Farquhar D, Gemmell M, Shewan D, Davies JB (May 1993). "The dual use of opioids and temazepam by drug injectors in Glasgow (Scotland)". Drug Alcohol Depend 32 (3): 277–80. doi:10.1016/0376-8716(93)90092-5. PMID 8348877. 
  38. ↑ Chowclhury, S. & R&ma& A. (1998). Pattern and trends of drug abuse in Dh&a, Bangladesh. Report of the Asian Multicity Epidemiology Workgroup. Eds. Navamtnam V. and B&a-, A. A.. 144-50.
  39. ↑ Baumevieille M, Haramburu F, Bégaud B (1997). "Abuse of prescription medicines in southwestern France". Ann Pharmacother 31 (7-8): 847–50. PMID 9220042. 
  40. ↑ Chapleo, C-B., Reisinger, M. and Rindom, H. (1997). European update. Research & Clinical Forums, 19: 33-38.
  41. ↑ Chatterjee A, Uprety L, Chapagain M, Kafle K (1996). "Drug abuse in Nepal: a rapid assessment study". Bull Narc 48 (1-2): 11–33. PMID 9839033. 
  42. ↑ http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB113/north06.pdf
  43. ↑ WHO/UNICRI (1995). "WHO Cocaine Project". http://www.tni.org/archives/drugscoca-docs_coca. 

Further reading

External links